Environmental health risk analysis of exposure to airborne particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) in residential areas surrounding a nickel smelter
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Abstract
Comunities surrounding nickel smelters may be exposed to particulate emissions, yet evidence from Indonesia remains limited, particularly studies integrating measured PM₁₀ and PM₂.₅ concentrations with individual exposure characteristics. This study estimated non-carcinogenic inhalation risks among residents of Borongloe Village, which was selected because its settlements are located close to a nickel smelter industrial area in Bantaeng Regency. A descriptive study using Environmental Health Risk Assessment (EHRA) included 40 adult residents, with 10 representing the area surrounding each of four sampling points. Ambient concentrations were measured gravimetrically using a high-volume air sampler. EHRA integrated the measured concentrations with individual exposure time, frequency, duration, and body weight to estimate inhalation intake and risk quotients (RQs). Mean concentrations were 30.65 µg/m³ for PM₁₀ and 11.57 µg/m³ for PM₂.₅. The corresponding mean RQs were 0.0546 and 0.0287, while the maximum RQs were 0.2035 and 0.1169. All RQs were below one, although residents exposed for more than four hours per day had the highest estimates. Because measurements lasted only 90–120 minutes and the smelter was not operating at full capacity, these values indicate no appreciable non-carcinogenic risk only under the observed exposure scenario and do not demonstrate long-term safety. The results provide a practical basis for prioritizing air-quality monitoring, emission control, risk communication, and protection of residents with longer outdoor exposure. By integrating environmental measurements with individual exposure parameters, this study provides a site-specific baseline EHRA for an understudied community near an Indonesian nickel smelter. Repeated 24-hour and long-term monitoring during normal operations is required to determine risks under representative operating conditions.
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How to Cite
Sukmawati, S., Satrianegara, F., Saleh, M., Susilawaty, A., & Irham, I. (2026). Environmental health risk analysis of exposure to airborne particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) in residential areas surrounding a nickel smelter . International Journal on Health and Medical Sciences, 4(3), 180–189. https://doi.org/10.35335/healmed.v4i3.767
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Alhajeri, N. S., Alrashidi, A. M., Yassin, M. F., & Al-Awadi, L. (2024). Optimizing indoor air quality: Investigating particulate matter exposure in household kitchens and source identification. Environmental Quality Management, 34(1). https://doi.org/10.1002/tqem.22198
Fikri, E., Dewi, D. R., & Juariah, L. (2025). Analisis Risiko Kesehatan Lingkungan (ARKL) Pajanan PM2.5 dan PM10 Pada Pekerja PT. Beton Elemenindo Perkasa Tahun 2024. Jurnal Kesehatan Lingkungan Indonesia, 24(1). https://doi.org/10.14710/jkli.67628
Golroudbary, S. R., Kraslawski, A., Wilson, B. P., & Lundström, M. (2022). Assessment of environmental sustainability of nickel required for mobility transition. Frontiers in Chemical Engineering, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fceng.2022.978842
Goshua, A., Akdis, C. A., & Nadeau, K. C. (2022). World Health Organization global air quality guideline recommendations: Executive summary. Allergy: European Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 77(7). https://doi.org/10.1111/all.15224
Guo, J., Chai, G., Song, X., Hui, X., Li, Z., Feng, X., & Yang, K. (2023). Long-term exposure to particulate matter on cardiovascular and respiratory diseases in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Public Health, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1134341
Gusti, A., Arlesia, A., & Anshari, L. H. (2018). Penurunan Derajat Kesehatan Pedagang Akibat Pajanan Debu PM10 di Kawasan Pasar Siteba Kota Padang. Media Kesehatan Masyarakat Indonesia, 14(3). https://doi.org/10.30597/mkmi.v14i3.4260
Hoffmann, B., Boogaard, H., de Nazelle, A., Andersen, Z. J., Abramson, M., Brauer, M., Brunekreef, B., Forastiere, F., Huang, W., Kan, H., Kaufman, J. D., Katsouyanni, K., Krzyzanowski, M., Kuenzli, N., Laden, F., Nieuwenhuijsen, M., Mustapha, A., Powell, P., Rice, M., … Thurston, G. (2021). WHO Air Quality Guidelines 2021–Aiming for Healthier Air for all: A Joint Statement by Medical, Public Health, Scientific Societies and Patient Representative Organisations. International Journal of Public Health, 66. https://doi.org/10.3389/ijph.2021.1604465
Kasongo, J., Alleman, L. Y., Kanda, J. M., Kaniki, A., & Riffault, V. (2024). Metal-bearing airborne particles from mining activities: A review on their characteristics, impacts and research perspectives. In Science of the Total Environment (Vol. 951). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.175426
Kelvin, M., Whiteman, E., & Leybourne, M. (2022). Characterization of Particulate Matter Generated at a Nickel Smelter Using Quantitative Mineralogy. Frontiers in Earth Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2022.817759
Kemenkes, R. I. (2012). Pedoman Analisis Risiko Kesehatan Lingkungan. Ditjen P2P. Ditjen P2P.
Keskinkilic, E. (2019). Nickel laterite smelting processes and some examples of recent possible modifications to the conventional route. In Metals (Vol. 9, Number 9). https://doi.org/10.3390/met9090974
Lee, S., Tian, D., He, R., Cragg, J. J., Carlsten, C., Giang, A., Gill, P. K., Johnson, K. M., & Brigham, E. (2024). Ambient air pollution exposure and adult asthma incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Planetary Health, 8(12). https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(24)00279-1
Lo, M. G. Y., Morgans, C. L., Santika, T., Mumbunan, S., Winarni, N., Supriatna, J., Voigt, M., Davies, Z. G., & Struebig, M. J. (2024). Nickel mining reduced forest cover in Indonesia but had mixed outcomes for well-being. One Earth, 7(11). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2024.10.010
Lo, W. C., Ho, C. C., Tseng, E., Hwang, J. S., Chan, C. C., & Lin, H. H. (2022). Long-term exposure to ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and associations with cardiopulmonary diseases and lung cancer in Taiwan: A nationwide longitudinal cohort study. International Journal of Epidemiology, 51(4). https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyac082
Maung, T. Z., Bishop, J. E., Holt, E., Turner, A. M., & Pfrang, C. (2022). Indoor Air Pollution and the Health of Vulnerable Groups: A Systematic Review Focused on Particulate Matter (PM), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and Their Effects on Children and People with Pre-Existing Lung Disease. In International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (Vol. 19, Number 14). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148752
Nasution, M. J., Tugiyono, Bakri, S., Setiawan, A., Murhadi, Wulandari, C., & Wahono, E. P. (2024). The Impact of Increasing Nickel Production on Forest and Environment in Indonesia: A Review. In Jurnal Sylva Lestari (Vol. 12, Number 3). https://doi.org/10.23960/jsl.v12i3.847
Novirsa, R., & Achmadi, U. F. (2012). Analisis Risiko Pajanan PM2,5 di Udara Ambien Siang Hari terhadap Masyarakat di Kawasan Industri Semen. Kesmas: National Public Health Journal, 7(4). https://doi.org/10.21109/kesmas.v7i4.52
Republic of Indonesia Government. (2021). Government Regulation [PP] Number 22 of 2021 concerning the Implementation of Environmental Protection and Management. In Legal Documentation and Information Network [JDIH].
Siregar, M. H., Susanti, R., Indriawati, R., Panma, Y., Hanaruddin, D. Y., Adhiwijaya, A., Akbar, H., Nugraha, D. P., & Renaldi, R. (2022). Metodologi penelitian kesehatan. Yayasan Penerbit Muhammad Zaini.
Taha, S. S., Idoudi, S., Alhamdan, N., Ibrahim, R. H., Surkatti, R., Amhamed, A., & Alrebei, O. F. (2025). Comprehensive review of health impacts of the exposure to nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon dioxide (CO2), and particulate matter (PM). In Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances (Vol. 19). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2025.100771
Vardoulakis, S., Giagloglou, E., Steinle, S., Davis, A., Sleeuwenhoek, A., Galea, K. S., Dixon, K., & Crawford, J. O. (2020). Indoor exposure to selected air pollutants in the home environment: A systematic review. In International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (Vol. 17, Number 23). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238972
Wahyono, Y., Sasongko, N. A., Trench, A., Anda, M., Hadiyanto, H., Aisyah, N., Anisah, A., Ariyanto, N., Kumalasari, I., Putri, V. Z. E., Lestari, M. C., Panggabean, L. P., Ridlo, R., Sundari, S., Suryaningtyas, A. D., Novianti, E. D., Hakim, M. R. F., Prihatin, A. L., & Matin, H. H. A. (2024). Evaluating the impacts of environmental and human health of the critical minerals mining and processing industries in Indonesia using life cycle assessment. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2024.100944
Wang, X., Zhu, D., Guo, Z., Pan, J., Lv, T., Yang, C., & Li, S. (2023). Efficient Utilization of Limonite Nickel Laterite to Prepare Ferronickel by the Selective Reduction Smelting Process. Sustainability (Switzerland), 15(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097147
World Health Organization. (2021). WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2. 5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide: executive summary. World Health Organization.
World Health Organization. (2024). Ambient (outdoor) air pollution. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-%28outdoor%29-air-quality-and-health?utm_source=chatgpt.com
Zhang, L., Ou, C., Magana-Arachchi, D., Vithanage, M., Vanka, K. S., Palanisami, T., Masakorala, K., Wijesekara, H., Yan, Y., Bolan, N., & Kirkham, M. B. (2021). Indoor particulate matter in urban households: Sources, pathways, characteristics, health effects, and exposure mitigation. In International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (Vol. 18, Number 21). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111055
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